2009年3月14日 星期六
2008年11月26日 星期三
LB390-393T
LB390-393T
Language geography is further complicated by the fact that the territories of peoples speaking languages of entirely different stock abut. Roman Jakobson noted that it is common for entirely different but adjacent languages to be contaminated by each other in terms of certain phonological features. For instance, clicks are found in many African languages which by their grammar and lexicon cannot be considered as cognate. The distribution of the interdental spirant (th) in Europe is not restricted to cognate languages but is apparently the result of diffusion in the recent past across boundaries of languages of different origin. Some American Indian languages along the pacific and around the Gulf of Mexico have a characteristic sound-cluster, usually transcribed as /tl/, even though the languages are of very different types.
使用全然不同語言的民族聚集在鄰接的領域，這使得語言的地理學更加地複雜。
Roman Jakobson注意到，就音韻特徵而言，全然不同但地域相鄰的語言之間會相互感染。例如，許多非洲語言都有吸氣音(click)，而根據其語法及詞彙，這些語言不能認定為同源語。 舌間擦音(interdental spirant)(th)的在歐洲的分布並不限於同源語之間，這樣的分布反倒是導因於晚近不同源的語言跨越語言界限的擴散。某些太平洋、墨西哥灣沿岸的美洲印地安語言有一個特有的輔音串(通常轉寫為(tl)，儘管這些語言分屬相當不同的典型。
The crazy-quilt pattern of language – and dialect-maps can be accounted for quite well by the resonance theory. The language-acquiring child does not merely resonate to his own family but to the social group at large. This is best seen in immigrant children in America whose parents speak English with a heavy accent but whose own language is standard American. The child’s language is patterned after that of the individuals with whom he comes in contact. Face to face contact in human populations is regulated by certain social institutions and mechanisms. There is no true randomization in individual contact, not even among those individuals who occupy the same territory. This is due to such factors as national and ethnic affiliations and even social class distinctions. Because of these political and social boundaries, language differences do not become gradually more and more accentuated in direct proportion to geographic distance, but instead we find sudden, discontinuous changes; that is isoglosses are sharp boundaries clearly marking dialectal differences. The discontinuities are, of course, much more dramatic in regions where languages from entirely different stock make contact.
語言及方言地圖的瘋狂拼布被模式，採用共鳴理論(the resonance theory)可以適當的解釋。習得語言過程中的兒童，不僅對自己的家人共鳴，同時對整個社會群體亦然。最好的例子可見於美國的移民兒童，其父母操著濃厚口音的英語，但自己說的是標準美語。兒童的語言以其所接觸到的個人為榜樣。人群中面對面的接觸受到某些社會制度、機制的規範。個人和他人的接觸並不真正的隨機，即便是與自己周遭的個體接觸時也是這樣。這歸因於像是國族和種族聯繫甚至是社會階級區別這樣的因素。由於這些政治和社會上的界線，語言差異不會與地理距離成正比而漸漸變得顯著，反之，我們可以看到驟然、不連續的改變，亦即等語線斷然地界定方言差異。在這樣不連續的情形在不同語系的語言接觸的區域當然更加劇烈。
The sharing of phonological features across language boundaries may result from children’s resonating to large numbers of individuals in their vicinity who speak with the same foreign accent. This may occur, for instance, along language or national borders. The feature can then penetrate into the language territories through further and further resonance.
音韻特徵在跨語言界線同時出現的情況，可能的原因是兒童共鳴於其周遭大量具外國口音的個體。舉例來說，這種情形可能會出現在語言或國家的邊界上。音韻特徵因此得以經由一再地共鳴而穿透語言的領土。
(4) A note on Adaptive Value
If the fundamentals of language have evolved in response to natural selection pressures, would it be fair to assume that the present nature of language constitutes in some sense an optimal solution? Such claims have been made, particularly in connection with measurements of the redundancy and information-transmission capacity of natural languages. But the explanations are always post hoc; languages are optimal, given the nature of man. But if the nature of language is partly the nature of man, as is suggested in the present thesis, these assertions become tautological. Is the nature of man, including his language, in any sense optimal? This becomes a question of religion rather than science. Our present era is not the final goal toward which evolution has striven, and we are merely at one stage in the continuity of life. Evolution of man has not stopped, and we cannot say whether the past, present, or future is in any way optimal.
如果語言的基礎是演化自對天擇壓力的回應，那麼假定語言目前的本質在某個意義上構成了最適的解決方案是合理的嗎?的確有人提過這類的主張，特別是就人類語言剩餘性和訊息傳遞能力的測量有關的情形而言。但這樣的解釋總是事後的(post hoc)；考慮人類的本質，則語言是最適的。但是，倘若語言的本質如同本文所提議，在一定程度上也是人類的本質，那麼，這些主張就會變成套套邏輯。人類的本質(包含語言)是否在任何意義上是最適的呢?這成了一個宗教的，而非科學的問是。我們當前的時代並非演化長久以來奮鬥的終極目標，我們僅僅是處在這生命的連續上的一個階段。人類的演化尚未終止，因此我們無論如何不能判定過去、現在或未來是最適的。
There is a more interesting question, however. What might be the adaptive value of the resonance phenomenon? Resonance is not unique to man as pointed out previously in (v). it is a feature of a specific type of social mechanism out of a collection of many other types in the animal kingdom that are also linked to critical period of development. Apparently, the combination of mechanisms for cohesion with simultaneous development of a critical period evolved independently many times over. The physiological and behavioral details that make resonance possible need not be the same in different species. Perhaps man is unique only in the particular way in which he has achieved resonance and the peculiar behavior to which it is relevant.
然而，有一個更有趣的問題。共鳴現象的適應價值是如何呢?如同先前於(v)中指出的，共鳴並非人類所獨有。 在動物王國之中的一堆社會機制裡，共嗚是其中特定的一個類型，這些機制都和關鍵期有關聯。顯然，為了結合關鍵期中的同步發展而來的各項機制間的組合已曾經獨立的一再發展了。使得共鳴有可能的生理和行為上細節，在不同的物種上不一定相同。也許人類之所以獨特在於以下兩點：人類達成共鳴的特殊方式，以及究竟對哪種行為而言，共鳴是攸關的。
The evolutionary recurrence of resonance leaves little doubt that it must harbor some selective advantages. What could they be? An examination of acoustic signaling systems among mammals gives us some scanty clues. The noises that most other mammals make can develop ontogenetically in the absence of social contact. Even though communicative behavior may not yet be present at birth, it will develop inexorably according to the species’ immanent laws of maturation (given an adequate physical and social environment), and the adult animal will have a species-specific signal repertoire available to it. The development of communication in man (as well as in some bird species) has a different ontogeny. Here the propensity matures as inexorably, but the actualization is linked to an adaptive feature towards environmental circumstances. It is a two-stage developmental course: at the first stage there is little tolerance for replicative variance, but at second stage there is very high tolerance. It is this splitting of the tolerance levels that may have important consequences for the evolution of behavior.
由於在演化過程的一再出現，共鳴無庸置疑地具有某些天擇上的優勢。這些優勢會是什麼呢?檢視哺乳類動物的聽覺傳訊系統可以得到一些蛛絲馬跡。大多數其他哺乳類動物所發出的聲音，可以在缺乏社會接觸的情況下，在個體上發展出來。即便在出生時也許尚無溝通行為，溝通行為也勢必會按其物種內在的成熟法則發展出來(在適當的自然和社會環境下)，而成年的動物會擁有其物種特有的訊號庫。在人類當中溝通的發展(在某些鳥類亦然)有不同的個體發生。在此，這種傾向勢不可擋，但其實現可連結到一項對於環境的適應性特徵。這是一個二階段的發展過程：在第一階段，對於複製性變異的容忍度不大，然而，在第二階段，容忍度卻相當高。容忍度等級的分裂可能對於行為的演化造成重大的影響。
Tolerance for variance is probably inversely related to the complexity of the communication system and, consequently, to the repertoire of the messages available to the species. If the communication system is very complex but there is no adaptive feature and the whole behavior pattern emerges in the course of a single-stage rigid development, any small biological deviation from the mean is likely to alter the receptive and productive capacities for patterns, thus rendering individuals that are not perfectly replicated incommunicado, and this difficulty in communication might bar them from interacting with the group. Therefore, perfect maintenance of a very complex system demands very low tolerance bringing with it waste due to exclusion of individuals. The waste can only be reduced if tolerance is raised, but since this will admit individuals with lower capacities, the general level or standard of complexity of behavior would be reduced and leveled out until a stage is reached in which communication can be accomplished by any rough approximation to a given sound pattern. Thus, communication systems that mature in a single stage process have their level of complexity balanced against risk of waste and loss of individuals to the reproductive community.
對於變異的容忍度很可能與溝通系統的複雜度是呈反向的關聯，於是，與訊息庫間的關係亦然。如果溝通系統相當複雜，但卻沒有適應性特徵，而且整個行為形態在一階段的精確發展的過程中浮現，那麼，在生物學上任何一點偏離平均值都可能會改變這此形態的接收及產出能力，於是使得非完美複制的個體完全的孤
立，如此溝通上的困難會阻止他們和團體互動。因此，完整的保存一個非常複雜的系統必須要有極低的容忍度，而低容忍度帶來了排除一些個體的浪費。這樣的浪費只有在容忍度提高時才能減少，但是，因為這樣會允許低能力個體的存在，行為複雜度的一般程度或標準會降低直到某個階段，在此階段之中溝通可以經由初步地逼近給定的語音形式而達成。於是，經一階段即成熟的溝通系統，其複雜度和個體折損的風險取得平衡。
The two-stage development, through introduction of the resonance phenomenon, circumvents the problem to a certain extent. Latent structure is merely a propensity (still lacking form). Language readiness is a primitive stage with final differentiation yet to come. Perhaps accurate replication at this stage is more easily attained because of this primitivity, and, therefore, tolerance for variance, although low, is not yet a critical problem. As the individual matures, the last stages of differentiation approach, and the process of actualization transforms latent to realized structure. But tolerance for variance in this secondary process is very high; through resonance the individual can adapt to a great variety of situations, and shape the realized form after the forms surrounding him. Through this increase of tolerance, the risk of losing individuals is lowered, whereas, at the same time, there are fewer limits to the complexity of the system. A wider range of variance is allowed to remain, and out of this communication systems may evolve with special mechanisms that generate virtually unlimited repertoires of messages to the great advantage of social cohesiveness and organization of the group structure.
經由引入共鳴現象，二階段的發展在某程度上繞過了這個問題。潛在的結構僅是一種傾向(尚缺形式)。語言發展潛勢(language readiness)只是一個初始階段，尚待最終的分化。或許精確的仿製，因為其原始性，所以在這個階段較容易達成，因此，對於變異的容異，儘管不高，也還不是個嚴重的問題。隨著個體成熟，分化方法的以及實現過程的最後階段將潛勢轉化為具現的結構。但是對於變異的容忍
在這第二階段的過程是非常高的；經由共鳴，個體可以適應許多差異很大的情況，而根據其四周的形式來形塑本身具現的形式。經由這種容忍度的增加，折損個體的風險降低，同時，就系統的複雜度而言，限制也更少。
Notice that the resonance phenomenon in man is actually an aspect of his peculiar and species-specific ontogenetic history. Resonance is linked to a postnatal state of relative immaturity and a concomitant lengthening of infancy and childhood, so that environmental influences (the molding after patterns available in the environment) can actually enter into the formative processes. In Chapter Four we have pointed out how man is unique is this respect. Here, then, we have a highly suggestive chain of reactions. Genetic alterations may lead to a peculiar developmental history in which the communication readiness becomes separated from the actualization process, so that latent structure comes to be distinct from realized structure, each with its own level of tolerance for replicative variance. Although the tolerance for the first level is lowered, that for the second level is heightened, thus opening up new possibilities for the development of zoologically unprecedented complexities in the system of communication.
要注意人類共鳴現象，實際上是其特殊且物種特有的個體發生史的一個面像。共鳴 相對不成熟性和集體嬰兒期的延長的出生前狀態 所以環境影響( )實際上可以進到形成過程。在此，我們接著有一個具高度啟示性的反應鏈。基因改變可能導致特殊的發展歷程，在此歷程中，溝通潛勢變得和實現過程分離， 所以潛在的結構和具現的結構變得有區別，而各自對於複製性變異容忍度有不同的容忍度。雖然第一個水平下降，於是使得在溝通系統中，動物學上前所未見的複雜性有了新的可能。
Language geography is further complicated by the fact that the territories of peoples speaking languages of entirely different stock abut. Roman Jakobson noted that it is common for entirely different but adjacent languages to be contaminated by each other in terms of certain phonological features. For instance, clicks are found in many African languages which by their grammar and lexicon cannot be considered as cognate. The distribution of the interdental spirant (th) in Europe is not restricted to cognate languages but is apparently the result of diffusion in the recent past across boundaries of languages of different origin. Some American Indian languages along the pacific and around the Gulf of Mexico have a characteristic sound-cluster, usually transcribed as /tl/, even though the languages are of very different types.
使用全然不同語言的民族聚集在鄰接的領域，這使得語言的地理學更加地複雜。
Roman Jakobson注意到，就音韻特徵而言，全然不同但地域相鄰的語言之間會相互感染。例如，許多非洲語言都有吸氣音(click)，而根據其語法及詞彙，這些語言不能認定為同源語。 舌間擦音(interdental spirant)(th)的在歐洲的分布並不限於同源語之間，這樣的分布反倒是導因於晚近不同源的語言跨越語言界限的擴散。某些太平洋、墨西哥灣沿岸的美洲印地安語言有一個特有的輔音串(通常轉寫為(tl)，儘管這些語言分屬相當不同的典型。
The crazy-quilt pattern of language – and dialect-maps can be accounted for quite well by the resonance theory. The language-acquiring child does not merely resonate to his own family but to the social group at large. This is best seen in immigrant children in America whose parents speak English with a heavy accent but whose own language is standard American. The child’s language is patterned after that of the individuals with whom he comes in contact. Face to face contact in human populations is regulated by certain social institutions and mechanisms. There is no true randomization in individual contact, not even among those individuals who occupy the same territory. This is due to such factors as national and ethnic affiliations and even social class distinctions. Because of these political and social boundaries, language differences do not become gradually more and more accentuated in direct proportion to geographic distance, but instead we find sudden, discontinuous changes; that is isoglosses are sharp boundaries clearly marking dialectal differences. The discontinuities are, of course, much more dramatic in regions where languages from entirely different stock make contact.
語言及方言地圖的瘋狂拼布被模式，採用共鳴理論(the resonance theory)可以適當的解釋。習得語言過程中的兒童，不僅對自己的家人共鳴，同時對整個社會群體亦然。最好的例子可見於美國的移民兒童，其父母操著濃厚口音的英語，但自己說的是標準美語。兒童的語言以其所接觸到的個人為榜樣。人群中面對面的接觸受到某些社會制度、機制的規範。個人和他人的接觸並不真正的隨機，即便是與自己周遭的個體接觸時也是這樣。這歸因於像是國族和種族聯繫甚至是社會階級區別這樣的因素。由於這些政治和社會上的界線，語言差異不會與地理距離成正比而漸漸變得顯著，反之，我們可以看到驟然、不連續的改變，亦即等語線斷然地界定方言差異。在這樣不連續的情形在不同語系的語言接觸的區域當然更加劇烈。
The sharing of phonological features across language boundaries may result from children’s resonating to large numbers of individuals in their vicinity who speak with the same foreign accent. This may occur, for instance, along language or national borders. The feature can then penetrate into the language territories through further and further resonance.
音韻特徵在跨語言界線同時出現的情況，可能的原因是兒童共鳴於其周遭大量具外國口音的個體。舉例來說，這種情形可能會出現在語言或國家的邊界上。音韻特徵因此得以經由一再地共鳴而穿透語言的領土。
(4) A note on Adaptive Value
If the fundamentals of language have evolved in response to natural selection pressures, would it be fair to assume that the present nature of language constitutes in some sense an optimal solution? Such claims have been made, particularly in connection with measurements of the redundancy and information-transmission capacity of natural languages. But the explanations are always post hoc; languages are optimal, given the nature of man. But if the nature of language is partly the nature of man, as is suggested in the present thesis, these assertions become tautological. Is the nature of man, including his language, in any sense optimal? This becomes a question of religion rather than science. Our present era is not the final goal toward which evolution has striven, and we are merely at one stage in the continuity of life. Evolution of man has not stopped, and we cannot say whether the past, present, or future is in any way optimal.
如果語言的基礎是演化自對天擇壓力的回應，那麼假定語言目前的本質在某個意義上構成了最適的解決方案是合理的嗎?的確有人提過這類的主張，特別是就人類語言剩餘性和訊息傳遞能力的測量有關的情形而言。但這樣的解釋總是事後的(post hoc)；考慮人類的本質，則語言是最適的。但是，倘若語言的本質如同本文所提議，在一定程度上也是人類的本質，那麼，這些主張就會變成套套邏輯。人類的本質(包含語言)是否在任何意義上是最適的呢?這成了一個宗教的，而非科學的問是。我們當前的時代並非演化長久以來奮鬥的終極目標，我們僅僅是處在這生命的連續上的一個階段。人類的演化尚未終止，因此我們無論如何不能判定過去、現在或未來是最適的。
There is a more interesting question, however. What might be the adaptive value of the resonance phenomenon? Resonance is not unique to man as pointed out previously in (v). it is a feature of a specific type of social mechanism out of a collection of many other types in the animal kingdom that are also linked to critical period of development. Apparently, the combination of mechanisms for cohesion with simultaneous development of a critical period evolved independently many times over. The physiological and behavioral details that make resonance possible need not be the same in different species. Perhaps man is unique only in the particular way in which he has achieved resonance and the peculiar behavior to which it is relevant.
然而，有一個更有趣的問題。共鳴現象的適應價值是如何呢?如同先前於(v)中指出的，共鳴並非人類所獨有。 在動物王國之中的一堆社會機制裡，共嗚是其中特定的一個類型，這些機制都和關鍵期有關聯。顯然，為了結合關鍵期中的同步發展而來的各項機制間的組合已曾經獨立的一再發展了。使得共鳴有可能的生理和行為上細節，在不同的物種上不一定相同。也許人類之所以獨特在於以下兩點：人類達成共鳴的特殊方式，以及究竟對哪種行為而言，共鳴是攸關的。
The evolutionary recurrence of resonance leaves little doubt that it must harbor some selective advantages. What could they be? An examination of acoustic signaling systems among mammals gives us some scanty clues. The noises that most other mammals make can develop ontogenetically in the absence of social contact. Even though communicative behavior may not yet be present at birth, it will develop inexorably according to the species’ immanent laws of maturation (given an adequate physical and social environment), and the adult animal will have a species-specific signal repertoire available to it. The development of communication in man (as well as in some bird species) has a different ontogeny. Here the propensity matures as inexorably, but the actualization is linked to an adaptive feature towards environmental circumstances. It is a two-stage developmental course: at the first stage there is little tolerance for replicative variance, but at second stage there is very high tolerance. It is this splitting of the tolerance levels that may have important consequences for the evolution of behavior.
由於在演化過程的一再出現，共鳴無庸置疑地具有某些天擇上的優勢。這些優勢會是什麼呢?檢視哺乳類動物的聽覺傳訊系統可以得到一些蛛絲馬跡。大多數其他哺乳類動物所發出的聲音，可以在缺乏社會接觸的情況下，在個體上發展出來。即便在出生時也許尚無溝通行為，溝通行為也勢必會按其物種內在的成熟法則發展出來(在適當的自然和社會環境下)，而成年的動物會擁有其物種特有的訊號庫。在人類當中溝通的發展(在某些鳥類亦然)有不同的個體發生。在此，這種傾向勢不可擋，但其實現可連結到一項對於環境的適應性特徵。這是一個二階段的發展過程：在第一階段，對於複製性變異的容忍度不大，然而，在第二階段，容忍度卻相當高。容忍度等級的分裂可能對於行為的演化造成重大的影響。
Tolerance for variance is probably inversely related to the complexity of the communication system and, consequently, to the repertoire of the messages available to the species. If the communication system is very complex but there is no adaptive feature and the whole behavior pattern emerges in the course of a single-stage rigid development, any small biological deviation from the mean is likely to alter the receptive and productive capacities for patterns, thus rendering individuals that are not perfectly replicated incommunicado, and this difficulty in communication might bar them from interacting with the group. Therefore, perfect maintenance of a very complex system demands very low tolerance bringing with it waste due to exclusion of individuals. The waste can only be reduced if tolerance is raised, but since this will admit individuals with lower capacities, the general level or standard of complexity of behavior would be reduced and leveled out until a stage is reached in which communication can be accomplished by any rough approximation to a given sound pattern. Thus, communication systems that mature in a single stage process have their level of complexity balanced against risk of waste and loss of individuals to the reproductive community.
對於變異的容忍度很可能與溝通系統的複雜度是呈反向的關聯，於是，與訊息庫間的關係亦然。如果溝通系統相當複雜，但卻沒有適應性特徵，而且整個行為形態在一階段的精確發展的過程中浮現，那麼，在生物學上任何一點偏離平均值都可能會改變這此形態的接收及產出能力，於是使得非完美複制的個體完全的孤
立，如此溝通上的困難會阻止他們和團體互動。因此，完整的保存一個非常複雜的系統必須要有極低的容忍度，而低容忍度帶來了排除一些個體的浪費。這樣的浪費只有在容忍度提高時才能減少，但是，因為這樣會允許低能力個體的存在，行為複雜度的一般程度或標準會降低直到某個階段，在此階段之中溝通可以經由初步地逼近給定的語音形式而達成。於是，經一階段即成熟的溝通系統，其複雜度和個體折損的風險取得平衡。
The two-stage development, through introduction of the resonance phenomenon, circumvents the problem to a certain extent. Latent structure is merely a propensity (still lacking form). Language readiness is a primitive stage with final differentiation yet to come. Perhaps accurate replication at this stage is more easily attained because of this primitivity, and, therefore, tolerance for variance, although low, is not yet a critical problem. As the individual matures, the last stages of differentiation approach, and the process of actualization transforms latent to realized structure. But tolerance for variance in this secondary process is very high; through resonance the individual can adapt to a great variety of situations, and shape the realized form after the forms surrounding him. Through this increase of tolerance, the risk of losing individuals is lowered, whereas, at the same time, there are fewer limits to the complexity of the system. A wider range of variance is allowed to remain, and out of this communication systems may evolve with special mechanisms that generate virtually unlimited repertoires of messages to the great advantage of social cohesiveness and organization of the group structure.
經由引入共鳴現象，二階段的發展在某程度上繞過了這個問題。潛在的結構僅是一種傾向(尚缺形式)。語言發展潛勢(language readiness)只是一個初始階段，尚待最終的分化。或許精確的仿製，因為其原始性，所以在這個階段較容易達成，因此，對於變異的容異，儘管不高，也還不是個嚴重的問題。隨著個體成熟，分化方法的以及實現過程的最後階段將潛勢轉化為具現的結構。但是對於變異的容忍
在這第二階段的過程是非常高的；經由共鳴，個體可以適應許多差異很大的情況，而根據其四周的形式來形塑本身具現的形式。經由這種容忍度的增加，折損個體的風險降低，同時，就系統的複雜度而言，限制也更少。
Notice that the resonance phenomenon in man is actually an aspect of his peculiar and species-specific ontogenetic history. Resonance is linked to a postnatal state of relative immaturity and a concomitant lengthening of infancy and childhood, so that environmental influences (the molding after patterns available in the environment) can actually enter into the formative processes. In Chapter Four we have pointed out how man is unique is this respect. Here, then, we have a highly suggestive chain of reactions. Genetic alterations may lead to a peculiar developmental history in which the communication readiness becomes separated from the actualization process, so that latent structure comes to be distinct from realized structure, each with its own level of tolerance for replicative variance. Although the tolerance for the first level is lowered, that for the second level is heightened, thus opening up new possibilities for the development of zoologically unprecedented complexities in the system of communication.
要注意人類共鳴現象，實際上是其特殊且物種特有的個體發生史的一個面像。共鳴 相對不成熟性和集體嬰兒期的延長的出生前狀態 所以環境影響( )實際上可以進到形成過程。在此，我們接著有一個具高度啟示性的反應鏈。基因改變可能導致特殊的發展歷程，在此歷程中，溝通潛勢變得和實現過程分離， 所以潛在的結構和具現的結構變得有區別，而各自對於複製性變異容忍度有不同的容忍度。雖然第一個水平下降，於是使得在溝通系統中，動物學上前所未見的複雜性有了新的可能。
2008年11月19日 星期三
LBT390-393
Roman Jakobson noted that it is common for entirely different but adjacent languages to be contaminated by each other in terms of certain phonological features. For instance, clicks are found in many African languages which by their grammar and lexicon cannot be considered as cognate. The distribution of the interdental spirant (th) in Europe is not restricted to cognate languages but is apparently the result of diffusion in the recent past across boundaries of languages of different origin. Some American Indian languages along the pacific and around the Gulf of Mexico have a characteristic sound-cluster, usually transcribed as /tl/, even though the languages are of very different types.
Roman Jakobson注意到，就音韻特徵而言，全然不同但地域相鄰的語言之間會相互感染。例如，許多非洲語言都有吸氣音(click)，而根據其語法及詞彙，這些語言不能認定為同源語。 舌間擦音(interdental spirant)(th)的在歐洲的分布並不限於同源語之間，這樣的分布反倒是導因於晚近不同源的語言跨越語言界限的擴散。某些太平洋、墨西哥灣沿岸的美洲印地安語言有一個特有的輔音串(通常轉寫為(tl)，儘管這些語言分屬相當不同的典型。
The crazy-quilt pattern of language – and dialect-maps can be accounted for quite well by the resonance theory. The language-acquiring child does not merely resonate to his own family but to the social group at large. This is best seen in immigrant children in America whose parents speak English with a heavy accent but whose own language is standard American. The child’s language is patterned after that of the individuals with whom he comes in contact. Face to face contact in human populations is regulated by certain social institutions and mechanisms. There is no true randomization in individual contact, not even among those individuals who occupy the same territory. This is due to such factors as national and ethnic affiliations and even social class distinctions. Because of these political and social boundaries, language differences do not become gradually more and more accentuated in direct proportion to geographic distance, but instead we find sudden, discontinuous changes; that is isoglosses are sharp boundaries clearly marking dialectal differences. The discontinuities are, of course, much more dramatic in regions where languages from entirely different stock make contact.
語言及方言地圖的瘋狂拼布被模式，採用共鳴理論(the resonance theory)可以適當的解釋。習得語言過程中的兒童，不僅對自己的家人共鳴，同時對整個社會群體亦然。最好的例子可見於美國的移民兒童，其父母操著濃厚口音的英語，但自己說的是標準美語。兒童的語言以其所接觸到的個人為榜樣。人群中面對面的接觸受到某些社會制度、機制的規範。個人和他人的接觸並不真正的隨機，即便是與自己周遭的個體也是這樣。這歸因於像是國族和種族聯繫甚至是社會階級區別這樣的因素。由於這些政治和社會上的界線，語言差異不會與地理距離成正比而漸漸變得顯著，反之，我們可以看到驟然、不連續的改變，亦即等語線斷然地界定方言差異。在這樣不連續的情形在不同語系的語言接觸的區域當然更加劇烈。
The sharing of phonological features across language boundaries may result from children’s resonating to large numbers of individuals in their vicinity who speak with the same foreign accent. This may occur, for instance, along language or national borders. The feature can then penetrate into the language territories through further and further resonance.
音韻特徵在跨語言界線同時出現的情況，可能的原因是兒童共鳴於其周遭大量具外國口音的個體。舉例來說，這種情形可能會出現在語言或國家的邊界上。音韻特徵因此得以經由一再地共鳴而穿透語言的領土。
(4) A note on Adaptive Value
If the fundamentals of language have evolved in response to natural selection pressures, would it be fair to assume that the present nature of language constitutes in some sense an optimal solution? Such claims have been made, particularly in connection with measurements of the redundancy and information-transmission capacity of natural languages. But the explanations are always post hoc; languages are optimal, given the nature of man. But if the nature of language is partly the nature of man, as is suggested in the present thesis, these assertions become tautological. Is the nature of man, including his language, in any sense optimal? This becomes a question of religion rather than science. Our present era is not the final goal toward which evolution has striven, and we are merely at one stage in the continuity of life. Evolution of man has not stopped, and we cannot say whether the past, present, or future is in any way optimal.
如果語言的基礎是演化自對天擇壓力的回應，那麼假定語言目前的本質在某個意義上構成了最適的解決方案是合理的嗎?的確有人提過這類的主張，特別是就人類語言剩餘性和訊息傳遞能力的測量有關的情形而言。但這樣的解釋總是事後的(post hoc)；考慮人類的本質，則語言是最適的。但是，倘若語言的本質如同本文所提議，在一定程度上也是人類的本質，那麼，這些主張就會變成套套邏輯。人類的本質(包含語言)是否在任何意義上是最適的呢?這成了一個宗教的，而非科學的問是。我們當前的時代並非演化長久以來奮鬥的終極目標，我們僅僅是處在這生命的連續上的一個階段。人類的演化尚未終止，因此我們無論如何不能判定過去、現在或未來是最適的。
There is a more interesting question, however. What might be the adaptive value of the resonance phenomenon? Resonance is not unique to man as pointed out previously in (v). it is a feature of a specific type of social mechanism out of a collection of many other types in the animal kingdom that are also linked to critical period of development. Apparently, the combination of mechanisms for cohesion with simultaneous development of a critical period evolved independently many times over. The physiological and behavioral details that make resonance possible need not be the same in different species. Perhaps man is unique only in the particular way in which he has achieved resonance and the peculiar behavior to which it is relevant.
然而，有一個更有趣的問題。共鳴現象的適應價值是如何呢?如同先前於(v)中指出的，共鳴並非人類所獨有。 在動物王國之中的一堆社會機制裡，共嗚是其中特定的一個類型，這些機制都和關鍵期有關聯。顯然，為了結合關鍵期中的同步發展而來的各項機制間的組合已曾經獨立的一再發展了。使得共鳴有可能的生理和行為上細節，在不同的物種上不一定相同。也許人類之所以獨特在於以下兩點：人類達成共鳴的特殊方式，以及究竟對哪種行為而言，共鳴是攸關的。
The evolutionary recurrence of resonance leaves little doubt that it must harbor some selective advantages. What could they be? An examination of acoustic signaling systems among mammals gives us some scanty clues. The noises that most other mammals make can develop ontogenetically in the absence of social contact. Even though communicative behavior may not yet be present at birth, it will develop inexorably according to the species’ immanent laws of maturation (given an adequate physical and social environment), and the adult animal will have a species-specific signal repertoire available to it. The development of communication in man (as well as in some bird species) has a different ontogeny. Here the propensity matures as inexorably, but the actualization is linked to an adaptive feature towards environmental circumstances. It is a two-stage developmental course: at the first stage there is little tolerance for replicative variance, but at second stage there is very high tolerance. It is this splitting of the tolerance levels that may have important consequences for the evolution of behavior.
由於在演化過程的一再出現，共鳴無庸置疑地具有某些天擇上的優勢。這些優勢會是什麼呢?檢視哺乳類動物的聽覺傳訊系統可以得到一些蛛絲馬跡。大多數其他哺乳類動物所發出的聲音，可以在缺乏社會接觸的情況下，在個體上發展出來。即便在出生時也許尚無溝通行為，溝通行為也勢必會按其物種內在的成熟法則發展出來(在適當的自然和社會環境下)，而成年的動物會擁有其物種特有的訊號庫。在人類當中溝通的發展(在某些鳥類亦然)有不同的個體發生。在此，這種傾向勢不可擋，但其實現可連結到一項對於環境的適應性特徵。這是一個二階段的發展過程：在第一階段，對於複製性變異的容忍度不大，然而，在第二階段，容忍度卻相當高。容忍度等級的分裂可能對於行為的演化造成重大的影響。
Tolerance for variance is probably inversely related to the complexity of the communication system and, consequently, to the repertoire of the messages available to the species. If the communication system is very complex but there is no adaptive feature and the whole behavior pattern emerges in the course of a single-stage rigid development, any small biological deviation from the mean is likely to alter the receptive and productive capacities for patterns, thus rendering individuals that are not perfectly replicated incommunicado, and this difficulty in communication might bar them from interacting with the group. Therefore, perfect maintenance of a very complex system demands very low tolerance bringing with it waste due to exclusion of individuals. The waste can only be reduced if tolerance is raised, but since this will admit individuals with lower capacities, the general level or standard of complexity of behavior would be reduced and leveled out until a stage is reached in which communication can be accomplished by any rough approximation to a given sound pattern. Thus, communication systems that mature in a single stage process have their level of complexity balanced against risk of waste and loss of individuals to the reproductive community.
對於變異的容忍度很可能與溝通系統的複雜度是呈反向的關聯，於是，與訊息庫間的關係亦然。如果溝通系統相當複雜，但卻沒有適應性特徵，而且整個行為形態在一階段的精確發展的過程中浮現，那麼，在生物學上任何一點偏離平均值都可能會改變這此形態的接收及產出能力，於是使得非完美複制的個體完全的孤
立，如此溝通上的困難會阻止他們和團體互動。因此，完整的保存一個非常複雜的系統必須要有極低的容忍度，而低容忍度帶來了排除一些個體的浪費。這樣的浪費只有在容忍度提高時才能減少，但是，因為這樣會允許低能力個體的存在，行為複雜度的一般程度或標準會降低直到某個階段，在此階段之中溝通可以經由初步地逼近給定的語音形式而達成。於是，經一階段即成熟的溝通系統，其複雜度和個體折損的風險取得平衡。
The two-stage development, through introduction of the resonance phenomenon, circumvents the problem to a certain extent. Latent structure is merely a propensity (still lacking form). Language readiness is a primitive stage with final differentiation yet to come. Perhaps accurate replication at this stage is more easily attained because of this primitivity, and, therefore, tolerance for variance, although low, is not yet a critical problem. As the individual matures, the last stages of differentiation approach, and the process of actualization transforms latent to realized structure. But tolerance for variance in this secondary process is very high; through resonance the individual can adapt to a great variety of situations, and shape the realized form after the forms surrounding him. Through this increase of tolerance, the risk of losing individuals is lowered, whereas, at the same time, there are fewer limits to the complexity of the system. A wider range of variance is allowed to remain, and out of this communication systems may evolve with special mechanisms that generate virtually unlimited repertoires of messages to the great advantage of social cohesiveness and organization of the group structure.
經由引入共鳴現象，二階段的發展在某程度上繞過了這個問題。潛在的結構僅是一種傾向(尚缺形式)。語言發展潛勢(language readiness)只是一個初始階段，尚待最終的分化。或許精確的仿製，因為其原始性，所以在這個階段較容易達成，因此，對於變異的容異，儘管不高，也還不是個嚴重的問題。隨著個體成熟，分化方法的以及實現過程的最後階段將潛勢轉化為具現的結構。但是對於變異的容忍在這第二階段的過程是非常高的；經由共鳴，個體可以適應許多差異很大的情況，而根據其四周的形式來形塑本身具現的形式。經由這種容忍度的增加，折損個體的風險降低，同時，就系統的複雜度而言，限制也更少。
Roman Jakobson注意到，就音韻特徵而言，全然不同但地域相鄰的語言之間會相互感染。例如，許多非洲語言都有吸氣音(click)，而根據其語法及詞彙，這些語言不能認定為同源語。 舌間擦音(interdental spirant)(th)的在歐洲的分布並不限於同源語之間，這樣的分布反倒是導因於晚近不同源的語言跨越語言界限的擴散。某些太平洋、墨西哥灣沿岸的美洲印地安語言有一個特有的輔音串(通常轉寫為(tl)，儘管這些語言分屬相當不同的典型。
The crazy-quilt pattern of language – and dialect-maps can be accounted for quite well by the resonance theory. The language-acquiring child does not merely resonate to his own family but to the social group at large. This is best seen in immigrant children in America whose parents speak English with a heavy accent but whose own language is standard American. The child’s language is patterned after that of the individuals with whom he comes in contact. Face to face contact in human populations is regulated by certain social institutions and mechanisms. There is no true randomization in individual contact, not even among those individuals who occupy the same territory. This is due to such factors as national and ethnic affiliations and even social class distinctions. Because of these political and social boundaries, language differences do not become gradually more and more accentuated in direct proportion to geographic distance, but instead we find sudden, discontinuous changes; that is isoglosses are sharp boundaries clearly marking dialectal differences. The discontinuities are, of course, much more dramatic in regions where languages from entirely different stock make contact.
語言及方言地圖的瘋狂拼布被模式，採用共鳴理論(the resonance theory)可以適當的解釋。習得語言過程中的兒童，不僅對自己的家人共鳴，同時對整個社會群體亦然。最好的例子可見於美國的移民兒童，其父母操著濃厚口音的英語，但自己說的是標準美語。兒童的語言以其所接觸到的個人為榜樣。人群中面對面的接觸受到某些社會制度、機制的規範。個人和他人的接觸並不真正的隨機，即便是與自己周遭的個體也是這樣。這歸因於像是國族和種族聯繫甚至是社會階級區別這樣的因素。由於這些政治和社會上的界線，語言差異不會與地理距離成正比而漸漸變得顯著，反之，我們可以看到驟然、不連續的改變，亦即等語線斷然地界定方言差異。在這樣不連續的情形在不同語系的語言接觸的區域當然更加劇烈。
The sharing of phonological features across language boundaries may result from children’s resonating to large numbers of individuals in their vicinity who speak with the same foreign accent. This may occur, for instance, along language or national borders. The feature can then penetrate into the language territories through further and further resonance.
音韻特徵在跨語言界線同時出現的情況，可能的原因是兒童共鳴於其周遭大量具外國口音的個體。舉例來說，這種情形可能會出現在語言或國家的邊界上。音韻特徵因此得以經由一再地共鳴而穿透語言的領土。
(4) A note on Adaptive Value
If the fundamentals of language have evolved in response to natural selection pressures, would it be fair to assume that the present nature of language constitutes in some sense an optimal solution? Such claims have been made, particularly in connection with measurements of the redundancy and information-transmission capacity of natural languages. But the explanations are always post hoc; languages are optimal, given the nature of man. But if the nature of language is partly the nature of man, as is suggested in the present thesis, these assertions become tautological. Is the nature of man, including his language, in any sense optimal? This becomes a question of religion rather than science. Our present era is not the final goal toward which evolution has striven, and we are merely at one stage in the continuity of life. Evolution of man has not stopped, and we cannot say whether the past, present, or future is in any way optimal.
如果語言的基礎是演化自對天擇壓力的回應，那麼假定語言目前的本質在某個意義上構成了最適的解決方案是合理的嗎?的確有人提過這類的主張，特別是就人類語言剩餘性和訊息傳遞能力的測量有關的情形而言。但這樣的解釋總是事後的(post hoc)；考慮人類的本質，則語言是最適的。但是，倘若語言的本質如同本文所提議，在一定程度上也是人類的本質，那麼，這些主張就會變成套套邏輯。人類的本質(包含語言)是否在任何意義上是最適的呢?這成了一個宗教的，而非科學的問是。我們當前的時代並非演化長久以來奮鬥的終極目標，我們僅僅是處在這生命的連續上的一個階段。人類的演化尚未終止，因此我們無論如何不能判定過去、現在或未來是最適的。
There is a more interesting question, however. What might be the adaptive value of the resonance phenomenon? Resonance is not unique to man as pointed out previously in (v). it is a feature of a specific type of social mechanism out of a collection of many other types in the animal kingdom that are also linked to critical period of development. Apparently, the combination of mechanisms for cohesion with simultaneous development of a critical period evolved independently many times over. The physiological and behavioral details that make resonance possible need not be the same in different species. Perhaps man is unique only in the particular way in which he has achieved resonance and the peculiar behavior to which it is relevant.
然而，有一個更有趣的問題。共鳴現象的適應價值是如何呢?如同先前於(v)中指出的，共鳴並非人類所獨有。 在動物王國之中的一堆社會機制裡，共嗚是其中特定的一個類型，這些機制都和關鍵期有關聯。顯然，為了結合關鍵期中的同步發展而來的各項機制間的組合已曾經獨立的一再發展了。使得共鳴有可能的生理和行為上細節，在不同的物種上不一定相同。也許人類之所以獨特在於以下兩點：人類達成共鳴的特殊方式，以及究竟對哪種行為而言，共鳴是攸關的。
The evolutionary recurrence of resonance leaves little doubt that it must harbor some selective advantages. What could they be? An examination of acoustic signaling systems among mammals gives us some scanty clues. The noises that most other mammals make can develop ontogenetically in the absence of social contact. Even though communicative behavior may not yet be present at birth, it will develop inexorably according to the species’ immanent laws of maturation (given an adequate physical and social environment), and the adult animal will have a species-specific signal repertoire available to it. The development of communication in man (as well as in some bird species) has a different ontogeny. Here the propensity matures as inexorably, but the actualization is linked to an adaptive feature towards environmental circumstances. It is a two-stage developmental course: at the first stage there is little tolerance for replicative variance, but at second stage there is very high tolerance. It is this splitting of the tolerance levels that may have important consequences for the evolution of behavior.
由於在演化過程的一再出現，共鳴無庸置疑地具有某些天擇上的優勢。這些優勢會是什麼呢?檢視哺乳類動物的聽覺傳訊系統可以得到一些蛛絲馬跡。大多數其他哺乳類動物所發出的聲音，可以在缺乏社會接觸的情況下，在個體上發展出來。即便在出生時也許尚無溝通行為，溝通行為也勢必會按其物種內在的成熟法則發展出來(在適當的自然和社會環境下)，而成年的動物會擁有其物種特有的訊號庫。在人類當中溝通的發展(在某些鳥類亦然)有不同的個體發生。在此，這種傾向勢不可擋，但其實現可連結到一項對於環境的適應性特徵。這是一個二階段的發展過程：在第一階段，對於複製性變異的容忍度不大，然而，在第二階段，容忍度卻相當高。容忍度等級的分裂可能對於行為的演化造成重大的影響。
Tolerance for variance is probably inversely related to the complexity of the communication system and, consequently, to the repertoire of the messages available to the species. If the communication system is very complex but there is no adaptive feature and the whole behavior pattern emerges in the course of a single-stage rigid development, any small biological deviation from the mean is likely to alter the receptive and productive capacities for patterns, thus rendering individuals that are not perfectly replicated incommunicado, and this difficulty in communication might bar them from interacting with the group. Therefore, perfect maintenance of a very complex system demands very low tolerance bringing with it waste due to exclusion of individuals. The waste can only be reduced if tolerance is raised, but since this will admit individuals with lower capacities, the general level or standard of complexity of behavior would be reduced and leveled out until a stage is reached in which communication can be accomplished by any rough approximation to a given sound pattern. Thus, communication systems that mature in a single stage process have their level of complexity balanced against risk of waste and loss of individuals to the reproductive community.
對於變異的容忍度很可能與溝通系統的複雜度是呈反向的關聯，於是，與訊息庫間的關係亦然。如果溝通系統相當複雜，但卻沒有適應性特徵，而且整個行為形態在一階段的精確發展的過程中浮現，那麼，在生物學上任何一點偏離平均值都可能會改變這此形態的接收及產出能力，於是使得非完美複制的個體完全的孤
立，如此溝通上的困難會阻止他們和團體互動。因此，完整的保存一個非常複雜的系統必須要有極低的容忍度，而低容忍度帶來了排除一些個體的浪費。這樣的浪費只有在容忍度提高時才能減少，但是，因為這樣會允許低能力個體的存在，行為複雜度的一般程度或標準會降低直到某個階段，在此階段之中溝通可以經由初步地逼近給定的語音形式而達成。於是，經一階段即成熟的溝通系統，其複雜度和個體折損的風險取得平衡。
The two-stage development, through introduction of the resonance phenomenon, circumvents the problem to a certain extent. Latent structure is merely a propensity (still lacking form). Language readiness is a primitive stage with final differentiation yet to come. Perhaps accurate replication at this stage is more easily attained because of this primitivity, and, therefore, tolerance for variance, although low, is not yet a critical problem. As the individual matures, the last stages of differentiation approach, and the process of actualization transforms latent to realized structure. But tolerance for variance in this secondary process is very high; through resonance the individual can adapt to a great variety of situations, and shape the realized form after the forms surrounding him. Through this increase of tolerance, the risk of losing individuals is lowered, whereas, at the same time, there are fewer limits to the complexity of the system. A wider range of variance is allowed to remain, and out of this communication systems may evolve with special mechanisms that generate virtually unlimited repertoires of messages to the great advantage of social cohesiveness and organization of the group structure.
經由引入共鳴現象，二階段的發展在某程度上繞過了這個問題。潛在的結構僅是一種傾向(尚缺形式)。語言發展潛勢(language readiness)只是一個初始階段，尚待最終的分化。或許精確的仿製，因為其原始性，所以在這個階段較容易達成，因此，對於變異的容異，儘管不高，也還不是個嚴重的問題。隨著個體成熟，分化方法的以及實現過程的最後階段將潛勢轉化為具現的結構。但是對於變異的容忍在這第二階段的過程是非常高的；經由共鳴，個體可以適應許多差異很大的情況，而根據其四周的形式來形塑本身具現的形式。經由這種容忍度的增加，折損個體的風險降低，同時，就系統的複雜度而言，限制也更少。
2008年11月12日 星期三
LBT390-393
Roman Jakobson noted that it is common for entirely different but adjacent languages to be contaminated by each other in terms of certain phonological features. For instance, clicks are found in many African languages which by their grammar and lexicon cannot be considered as cognate. The distribution of the interdental spirant (th) in Europe is not restricted to cognate languages but is apparently the result of diffusion in the recent past across boundaries of languages of different origin. Some American Indian languages along the pacific and around the Gulf of Mexico have a characteristic sound-cluster, usually transcribed as /tl/, even though the languages are of very different types.
Roman Jakobson注意到，就音韻特徵而言，全然不同但地域相鄰的語言之間會相互感染。例如，許多非洲語言都有吸氣音(click)，而根據其語法及詞彙，這些語言不能認定為同源語。 舌間擦音(interdental spirant)(th)的在歐洲的分布並不限於同源語之間，這樣的分布反倒是導因於晚近不同源的語言跨越語言界限的擴散。某些太平洋、墨西哥灣沿岸的美洲印地安語言有一個特有的輔音串(通常轉寫為(tl)，儘管這些語言分屬相當不同的典型。
The crazy-quilt pattern of language – and dialect-maps can be accounted for quite well by the resonance theory. The language-acquiring child does not merely resonate to his own family but to the social group at large. This is best seen in immigrant children in America whose parents speak English with a heavy accent but whose own language is standard American. The child’s language is patterned after that of the individuals with whom he comes in contact. Face to face contact in human populations is regulated by certain social institutions and mechanisms. There is no true randomization in individual contact, not even among those individuals who occupy the same territory. This is due to such factors as national and ethnic affiliations and even social class distinctions. Because of these political and social boundaries, language differences do not become gradually more and more accentuated in direct proportion to geographic distance, but instead we find sudden, discontinuous changes; that is isoglosses are sharp boundaries clearly marking dialectal differences. The discontinuities are, of course, much more dramatic in regions where languages from entirely different stock make contact.
語言及方言地圖的瘋狂拼布被模式，採用共鳴理論(the resonance theory)可以適當的解釋。習得語言過程中的兒童，不僅對自己的家人共鳴，同時對整個社會群體亦然。最好的例子可見於美國的移民兒童，其父母操著濃厚口音的英語，但自己說的是標準美語。兒童的語言以其所接觸到的個人為榜樣。人群中面對面的接觸受到某些社會制度、機制的規範。個人和他人的接觸並不真正的隨機，即便是與自己周遭的個體也是這樣。這歸因於像是國族和種族聯繫甚至是社會階級區別這樣的因素。由於這些政治和社會上的界線，語言差異不會與地理距離成正比而漸漸變得顯著，反之，我們可以看到驟然、不連續的改變，亦即等語線斷然地界定方言差異。
The sharing of phonological features across language boundaries may result from children’s resonating to large numbers of individuals in their vicinity who speak with the same foreign accent. This may occur, for instance, along language or national borders. The feature can then penetrate into the language territories through further and further resonance.
跨語言界線的音韻特徵共現的情況，可能的原因是兒童共鳴於其周遭大量具外國口音的個體。舉例來說，這種情形可能會出現在語言或國家的邊界上。
(4) A note on Adaptive Value
If the fundamentals of language have evolved in response to natural selection pressures, would it be fair to assume that the present nature of language constitutes in some sense an optimal solution? Such claims have been made, particularly in connection with measurements of the redundancy and information-transmission capacity of natural languages. But the explanations are always post hoc; languages are optimal, given the nature of man. But if the nature of language is partly the nature of man, as is suggested in the present thesis, these assertions become tautological. Is the nature of man, including his language, in any sense optimal? This becomes a question of religion rather than science. Our present era is not the final goal toward which evolution has striven, and we are merely at one stage in the continuity of life. Evolution of man has not stopped, and we cannot say whether the past, present, or future is in any way optimal.
如果語言的基礎是演化自對天擇壓力的回應，那麼假定語言目前的本質在某個意義上構成了最適的解決方案是合理的嗎?的確有人提過這類的主張，特別是就人類語言剩餘性和訊息傳遞能力的測量有關的情形而言。但這樣的解釋總是事後的(post hoc)；考慮人類的本質，則語言是最適的。但是，倘若語言的本質如同本文所提議，在一定程度上也是人類的本質，那麼，這些主張就會變成套套邏輯。人類的本質(包含語言)是否在任何意義上是最適的呢?這成了一個宗教的，而非科學的問是。我們當前的時代並非演化長久以來奮鬥的終極目標，我們僅僅是處在這生命的連續上的一個階段。人類的演化尚未終止，因此我們無論如何不能判定過去、現在或未來是最適的。
Roman Jakobson注意到，就音韻特徵而言，全然不同但地域相鄰的語言之間會相互感染。例如，許多非洲語言都有吸氣音(click)，而根據其語法及詞彙，這些語言不能認定為同源語。 舌間擦音(interdental spirant)(th)的在歐洲的分布並不限於同源語之間，這樣的分布反倒是導因於晚近不同源的語言跨越語言界限的擴散。某些太平洋、墨西哥灣沿岸的美洲印地安語言有一個特有的輔音串(通常轉寫為(tl)，儘管這些語言分屬相當不同的典型。
The crazy-quilt pattern of language – and dialect-maps can be accounted for quite well by the resonance theory. The language-acquiring child does not merely resonate to his own family but to the social group at large. This is best seen in immigrant children in America whose parents speak English with a heavy accent but whose own language is standard American. The child’s language is patterned after that of the individuals with whom he comes in contact. Face to face contact in human populations is regulated by certain social institutions and mechanisms. There is no true randomization in individual contact, not even among those individuals who occupy the same territory. This is due to such factors as national and ethnic affiliations and even social class distinctions. Because of these political and social boundaries, language differences do not become gradually more and more accentuated in direct proportion to geographic distance, but instead we find sudden, discontinuous changes; that is isoglosses are sharp boundaries clearly marking dialectal differences. The discontinuities are, of course, much more dramatic in regions where languages from entirely different stock make contact.
語言及方言地圖的瘋狂拼布被模式，採用共鳴理論(the resonance theory)可以適當的解釋。習得語言過程中的兒童，不僅對自己的家人共鳴，同時對整個社會群體亦然。最好的例子可見於美國的移民兒童，其父母操著濃厚口音的英語，但自己說的是標準美語。兒童的語言以其所接觸到的個人為榜樣。人群中面對面的接觸受到某些社會制度、機制的規範。個人和他人的接觸並不真正的隨機，即便是與自己周遭的個體也是這樣。這歸因於像是國族和種族聯繫甚至是社會階級區別這樣的因素。由於這些政治和社會上的界線，語言差異不會與地理距離成正比而漸漸變得顯著，反之，我們可以看到驟然、不連續的改變，亦即等語線斷然地界定方言差異。
The sharing of phonological features across language boundaries may result from children’s resonating to large numbers of individuals in their vicinity who speak with the same foreign accent. This may occur, for instance, along language or national borders. The feature can then penetrate into the language territories through further and further resonance.
跨語言界線的音韻特徵共現的情況，可能的原因是兒童共鳴於其周遭大量具外國口音的個體。舉例來說，這種情形可能會出現在語言或國家的邊界上。
(4) A note on Adaptive Value
If the fundamentals of language have evolved in response to natural selection pressures, would it be fair to assume that the present nature of language constitutes in some sense an optimal solution? Such claims have been made, particularly in connection with measurements of the redundancy and information-transmission capacity of natural languages. But the explanations are always post hoc; languages are optimal, given the nature of man. But if the nature of language is partly the nature of man, as is suggested in the present thesis, these assertions become tautological. Is the nature of man, including his language, in any sense optimal? This becomes a question of religion rather than science. Our present era is not the final goal toward which evolution has striven, and we are merely at one stage in the continuity of life. Evolution of man has not stopped, and we cannot say whether the past, present, or future is in any way optimal.
如果語言的基礎是演化自對天擇壓力的回應，那麼假定語言目前的本質在某個意義上構成了最適的解決方案是合理的嗎?的確有人提過這類的主張，特別是就人類語言剩餘性和訊息傳遞能力的測量有關的情形而言。但這樣的解釋總是事後的(post hoc)；考慮人類的本質，則語言是最適的。但是，倘若語言的本質如同本文所提議，在一定程度上也是人類的本質，那麼，這些主張就會變成套套邏輯。人類的本質(包含語言)是否在任何意義上是最適的呢?這成了一個宗教的，而非科學的問是。我們當前的時代並非演化長久以來奮鬥的終極目標，我們僅僅是處在這生命的連續上的一個階段。人類的演化尚未終止，因此我們無論如何不能判定過去、現在或未來是最適的。
2008年11月5日 星期三
LB085-089T
LB85-89
(3) Other Motor Changes Indirectly Related to Respiratory Adaptations
The principal adaptations are summarized in Table 3.3 In Chapter two we have pointed out that the geometry of the naso-velo-pharyngeal space has a unique configuration in man and that this deviation from the rest of the primate order may be related to man’s unique posture. A consequence of the morphological peculiarity is that parting of the lips lets air stream simultaneously through oral and nasal cavities. However, during speech air is intermittently shunted either through the mouth, the nose, or both simultaneously, and muscular mechanisms exist to effect these movements quickly and efficiently. The nature of these movements is shown in Figs. 3.4 and 3.5. They have been thoroughly investigated by Björk (1961). Figure 3.5 is a demonstration of the relative speed, accuracy, and timing which integrates palatal movements into the speech event as a whole. Whether there are homologous mechanisms in lower primates is not clear (Müller, 1955). At any rate, the physiology of their movements in deglutition and phonation has apparently not been investigated.
主要的調適摘要於表3.3。在第二章，我們已指出鼻-顎-咽空間在人類有獨特的配置，而此項偏離其它靈長目動物的現象或許和人類獨特的姿勢有關。這項形態學上的特點有一個後果，那就是嘴脣張開會讓氣流同時通過口腔和鼻腔。然而，在說話時，空氣間歇地轉軌，通過嘴，鼻，或同時通過兩者，而存在著一些肌肉的機制來迅速且有效率地實現這些動作。這些動作的本質呈現在圖3.4和3.5。Björk (1961)已徹底地研究了這些動作。圖3.5展示了將顎部動作整合入整體說話事件的相對速度、準確度以及時機。在較低等的靈長類身上是否有同源的機制並不明確(Müller, 1955)。無論如何，有關牠們的吞嚥和發聲動作的生理學顯然尚未被研究。
When the vocal folds are spread apart during quiet breathing, the larynx constitutes a tubular air tunnel with somewhat irregularly shaped walls. The shape of the walls is altered during phonation and, as Fink and Kirschner (1959) have noted, some regularities are introduced in the subglottal space that favor the aerodynamics of sound production by reducing subglottal turbulence and thus increasing the efficiency in utilization of air flow. When the cords are brought together for phonation, their medial edge becomes sharpened, their superior surface flattens and forms a shelf, whereas the inferior surface is arched exponentially as shown in Fig. 15 of Chapter 2. Pressman and Kelemen (1955) state that “the advantage of such a curve inferiorly is twofold: (1) it thins out the medial mass of the cord without narrowing it or depriving it of a wide lateral attachment, thereby improving its vibratory characteristics; (2) because it is dome-shaped, the pressure of air converges from below to a point in the midline where the cords are thinnest. Under these circumstances, the free margins of the cords can, during phonation, be more easily blown apart by the pressure of expired air.”*
當聲帶在安靜呼吸時分開，喉頭構成一個管狀的風洞，其管壁有些不規則。管壁的形狀在發聲過程中會改變，而且如同Fink and Kirschner (1959)已指出的，聲門下空間開始變得規則一些，這利於產生聲音的空氣動力，原因是聲門下擾流減少，增進氣流運用的效率。當聲帶為了發聲而併攏時，中段的邊緣變得輪廓分明，其上部的表面變平且形成擱板狀，而其下部的表面，如第二章圖15所示，陡然地拱起。Pressman and Kelemen (1955)認為，”往下彎曲有兩方面的優勢：(1 )這使得聲帶的中部變薄，但不會使得聲帶整體變窄或使其無法往側向附著，於是增進了聲帶的振動特質；(2)因為聲帶為圓頂形，空氣的壓力從下匯流到其中線，而此處是聲帶最薄的地方。在這些情形下，聲帶閒置的邊緣在發聲過程中就能夠更輕易的被呼出空氣的壓力所吹開。
Kainz (vol. III, 1954) who summarized all respiratory and motor changes accompanying speech, also cites a difference between the position of the vocal folds during inhalation while the individual is quiet and during phonation. In the former, the muscles are relatively relaxed, forming a roughly triangular opening in cross section; whereas during speech, further retraction of the cords takes place to increase the available space, thereby facilitating rapid inspiration. During exhalation the cords are thought to assume a similar position as during inhalation as long as breathing is quiet and under relaxed conditions (which is not the case during laryngoscopy), whereas they are subjected to a rapid succession of adduction (during phonation), abduction (during unvoiced sounds), and tight adduction (during the production of glottal stops—which are lacking in some languages).
Kainz (vol. III, 1954)簡述了所有伴隨言語而來的呼吸和運動的變化，他也引述了一項在吸氣過程中，聲帶位置在個體安靜與發聲這兩個情況下的差異。在第一個情況下，肌肉相對地放鬆，在剖面上形成了一個像三角形的開口，而在說話時，肌肉進一步地收縮以增加可用的空間，於是促進了快速的吸氣。在呼氣的過程中，只要呼吸是無聲而在放鬆的條件下，聲帶被認為呈現一種與吸氣時相似的位置(但喉鏡檢查的結果並非如此)，然而，這些肌肉承受了一連串快速的內縮(在發聲過程中)，外展(發無聲子音時)，以及緊內縮(發喉塞音時，有一些語言缺少這類聲音)。
Throughout phonation, the cords are brought together but not so tightly as to prevent them from vibrating when air is blown through them from below. The individual vibrations themselves are not the result of neurogenic muscular twitches as proposed by Hussonand his followers, but, as is generally agreed now, depend on simple maintenance of muscle tonus, tissue elasticity of the vocal folds, and air pressure.
在發聲過程中，聲帶會靠攏，但是在氣流由下往上流過聲帶時，卻不至於緊到振動不了。個別的振動本身並非如Hussonand與其信徒所言，係神經性的肌肉抽動，而是如現在一般被接受的是取決於單純的肌肉強直性的維持，聲帶的組織彈性和氣壓。
(3) Other Motor Changes Indirectly Related to Respiratory Adaptations
The principal adaptations are summarized in Table 3.3 In Chapter two we have pointed out that the geometry of the naso-velo-pharyngeal space has a unique configuration in man and that this deviation from the rest of the primate order may be related to man’s unique posture. A consequence of the morphological peculiarity is that parting of the lips lets air stream simultaneously through oral and nasal cavities. However, during speech air is intermittently shunted either through the mouth, the nose, or both simultaneously, and muscular mechanisms exist to effect these movements quickly and efficiently. The nature of these movements is shown in Figs. 3.4 and 3.5. They have been thoroughly investigated by Björk (1961). Figure 3.5 is a demonstration of the relative speed, accuracy, and timing which integrates palatal movements into the speech event as a whole. Whether there are homologous mechanisms in lower primates is not clear (Müller, 1955). At any rate, the physiology of their movements in deglutition and phonation has apparently not been investigated.
主要的調適摘要於表3.3。在第二章，我們已指出鼻-顎-咽空間在人類有獨特的配置，而此項偏離其它靈長目動物的現象或許和人類獨特的姿勢有關。這項形態學上的特點有一個後果，那就是嘴脣張開會讓氣流同時通過口腔和鼻腔。然而，在說話時，空氣間歇地轉軌，通過嘴，鼻，或同時通過兩者，而存在著一些肌肉的機制來迅速且有效率地實現這些動作。這些動作的本質呈現在圖3.4和3.5。Björk (1961)已徹底地研究了這些動作。圖3.5展示了將顎部動作整合入整體說話事件的相對速度、準確度以及時機。在較低等的靈長類身上是否有同源的機制並不明確(Müller, 1955)。無論如何，有關牠們的吞嚥和發聲動作的生理學顯然尚未被研究。
When the vocal folds are spread apart during quiet breathing, the larynx constitutes a tubular air tunnel with somewhat irregularly shaped walls. The shape of the walls is altered during phonation and, as Fink and Kirschner (1959) have noted, some regularities are introduced in the subglottal space that favor the aerodynamics of sound production by reducing subglottal turbulence and thus increasing the efficiency in utilization of air flow. When the cords are brought together for phonation, their medial edge becomes sharpened, their superior surface flattens and forms a shelf, whereas the inferior surface is arched exponentially as shown in Fig. 15 of Chapter 2. Pressman and Kelemen (1955) state that “the advantage of such a curve inferiorly is twofold: (1) it thins out the medial mass of the cord without narrowing it or depriving it of a wide lateral attachment, thereby improving its vibratory characteristics; (2) because it is dome-shaped, the pressure of air converges from below to a point in the midline where the cords are thinnest. Under these circumstances, the free margins of the cords can, during phonation, be more easily blown apart by the pressure of expired air.”*
當聲帶在安靜呼吸時分開，喉頭構成一個管狀的風洞，其管壁有些不規則。管壁的形狀在發聲過程中會改變，而且如同Fink and Kirschner (1959)已指出的，聲門下空間開始變得規則一些，這利於產生聲音的空氣動力，原因是聲門下擾流減少，增進氣流運用的效率。當聲帶為了發聲而併攏時，中段的邊緣變得輪廓分明，其上部的表面變平且形成擱板狀，而其下部的表面，如第二章圖15所示，陡然地拱起。Pressman and Kelemen (1955)認為，”往下彎曲有兩方面的優勢：(1 )這使得聲帶的中部變薄，但不會使得聲帶整體變窄或使其無法往側向附著，於是增進了聲帶的振動特質；(2)因為聲帶為圓頂形，空氣的壓力從下匯流到其中線，而此處是聲帶最薄的地方。在這些情形下，聲帶閒置的邊緣在發聲過程中就能夠更輕易的被呼出空氣的壓力所吹開。
Kainz (vol. III, 1954) who summarized all respiratory and motor changes accompanying speech, also cites a difference between the position of the vocal folds during inhalation while the individual is quiet and during phonation. In the former, the muscles are relatively relaxed, forming a roughly triangular opening in cross section; whereas during speech, further retraction of the cords takes place to increase the available space, thereby facilitating rapid inspiration. During exhalation the cords are thought to assume a similar position as during inhalation as long as breathing is quiet and under relaxed conditions (which is not the case during laryngoscopy), whereas they are subjected to a rapid succession of adduction (during phonation), abduction (during unvoiced sounds), and tight adduction (during the production of glottal stops—which are lacking in some languages).
Kainz (vol. III, 1954)簡述了所有伴隨言語而來的呼吸和運動的變化，他也引述了一項在吸氣過程中，聲帶位置在個體安靜與發聲這兩個情況下的差異。在第一個情況下，肌肉相對地放鬆，在剖面上形成了一個像三角形的開口，而在說話時，肌肉進一步地收縮以增加可用的空間，於是促進了快速的吸氣。在呼氣的過程中，只要呼吸是無聲而在放鬆的條件下，聲帶被認為呈現一種與吸氣時相似的位置(但喉鏡檢查的結果並非如此)，然而，這些肌肉承受了一連串快速的內縮(在發聲過程中)，外展(發無聲子音時)，以及緊內縮(發喉塞音時，有一些語言缺少這類聲音)。
Throughout phonation, the cords are brought together but not so tightly as to prevent them from vibrating when air is blown through them from below. The individual vibrations themselves are not the result of neurogenic muscular twitches as proposed by Hussonand his followers, but, as is generally agreed now, depend on simple maintenance of muscle tonus, tissue elasticity of the vocal folds, and air pressure.
在發聲過程中，聲帶會靠攏，但是在氣流由下往上流過聲帶時，卻不至於緊到振動不了。個別的振動本身並非如Hussonand與其信徒所言，係神經性的肌肉抽動，而是如現在一般被接受的是取決於單純的肌肉強直性的維持，聲帶的組織彈性和氣壓。
2008年10月29日 星期三
LB033-034T
LB33-34
I. INTRODUCTION
Although anatomy is a fascinating subject and its inclusion in a book such as the present one does not require any apologies, there is at the same time the danger of misunderstanding its role here. The anatomical description of man’s speech organs does not lead to insight into the origin of language (see Chapter Six) nor does it provide an explanation of man’s capacity for language. As biologists we cannot discern meaning or purpose of specific anatomical developments. Survival of the species, increase of efficiency in various respects, or group cohesiveness may very well be among the biasing principles of natural selection. However, any one of these “ends” might conceivably be achieved by an infinity of means. Why a given phylogeny went one particular way instead of any one of the multitude of theoretically possible other ways is in most instances unknown and speculation on this topic is frequently futile.
雖然解剖學是一個引人入勝的課題，而且將其納入像是眼前這樣的一本書中無須任何辯解，然而，誤解其在此角色的風險也同時存在。對人類說話器官的解剖學描述並不通往語言起源的洞見(見第六章)，也不提供對人類語言能力的解釋。作為生物學家，我們無法察覺出特定的解剖學上發展所具有的意義或用途。物種的存續，許多方面上效率的提升，或是群體的團結都很可能在天擇的偏好原則之中。然而，可以理解的是，這些”目的”中的任一項都可以經由無數的途徑達成。為何一個特定的種屬發生是朝某個特別的道路上發展而非走向其它理論上可能的眾多道路之一，這在多數的個案上是未知的，而且對此議題的思索往往是徒勞的。
Anatomy is a descriptive science. The sounds of language are certainly intimately related to the morphology of the vocal tract. Thus, a description of man’s vocal tract may account for certain peculiarities of universal features of speech. A discussion of these relationships does not imply knowledge of causality in the course of evolution.
解剖學是一門描述性的科學。語言中的聲音的確和聲道的形態學密切相關。因此，對人類聲道的描述或許可以說明言語的普遍特徵所具有的一些特性。討論這些關係並不暗示演化的過程中有因果性。
Our approach will be based on comparative studies. We should like to demonstrate morphological peculiarities of man by comparing all speech-relevant structures to homologous ones in Pongidae (that is, the great apes: chimpanzee and gorilla, which are our closest of kin, and orangutan). Whenever available, we shall also make reference to the gibbons, rounding out the picture of the Hominoidea.
我們的方法將基於比較性的研究。我們應當藉著比較所有攸關言語的結構和其在猿科(Pongidae)動物上的同構體來呈現人類在形態學上的特點。如有資料，我們也將提及長臂猿，以完成人猿總科(Hominoidea)的全貌。
A review of the pertinent literature brings to light rather unexpected gaps in our knowledge of primate anatomy. In many instances, a complete comparison is not possible because of lack of data; in other instances, the facts reported are based on dissections of a single specimen so that artifacts of fixation, age, sex, and individual variations are uncontrolled variables. The presentation, however, has been confined to the most outstanding and generally agreed upon facts.
回顧相關的文獻，對靈長類解剖學知識預料外的空白浮現出來。在很多個案上，因為資料缺乏而不可能作出完整的比較；在其它個案中，提出的結果是基於對單一標本的解剖，因此對標本的固定方式、年齡、以及個體變異是非控制變項。然而，以下的介紹限於最顯著且廣為認可的結果。
The anatomical discussions lay no claim to completeness and cannot substitute as a text for instruction on the anatomy of speech organs.(Kaplan, 1960 may be used for the purpose.)
此處解剖學的討論不具完整性，而且不能作為介紹語言器官解剖學的教材(Kaplan, 1960或可作此用途)。
I. INTRODUCTION
Although anatomy is a fascinating subject and its inclusion in a book such as the present one does not require any apologies, there is at the same time the danger of misunderstanding its role here. The anatomical description of man’s speech organs does not lead to insight into the origin of language (see Chapter Six) nor does it provide an explanation of man’s capacity for language. As biologists we cannot discern meaning or purpose of specific anatomical developments. Survival of the species, increase of efficiency in various respects, or group cohesiveness may very well be among the biasing principles of natural selection. However, any one of these “ends” might conceivably be achieved by an infinity of means. Why a given phylogeny went one particular way instead of any one of the multitude of theoretically possible other ways is in most instances unknown and speculation on this topic is frequently futile.
雖然解剖學是一個引人入勝的課題，而且將其納入像是眼前這樣的一本書中無須任何辯解，然而，誤解其在此角色的風險也同時存在。對人類說話器官的解剖學描述並不通往語言起源的洞見(見第六章)，也不提供對人類語言能力的解釋。作為生物學家，我們無法察覺出特定的解剖學上發展所具有的意義或用途。物種的存續，許多方面上效率的提升，或是群體的團結都很可能在天擇的偏好原則之中。然而，可以理解的是，這些”目的”中的任一項都可以經由無數的途徑達成。為何一個特定的種屬發生是朝某個特別的道路上發展而非走向其它理論上可能的眾多道路之一，這在多數的個案上是未知的，而且對此議題的思索往往是徒勞的。
Anatomy is a descriptive science. The sounds of language are certainly intimately related to the morphology of the vocal tract. Thus, a description of man’s vocal tract may account for certain peculiarities of universal features of speech. A discussion of these relationships does not imply knowledge of causality in the course of evolution.
解剖學是一門描述性的科學。語言中的聲音的確和聲道的形態學密切相關。因此，對人類聲道的描述或許可以說明言語的普遍特徵所具有的一些特性。討論這些關係並不暗示演化的過程中有因果性。
Our approach will be based on comparative studies. We should like to demonstrate morphological peculiarities of man by comparing all speech-relevant structures to homologous ones in Pongidae (that is, the great apes: chimpanzee and gorilla, which are our closest of kin, and orangutan). Whenever available, we shall also make reference to the gibbons, rounding out the picture of the Hominoidea.
我們的方法將基於比較性的研究。我們應當藉著比較所有攸關言語的結構和其在猿科(Pongidae)動物上的同構體來呈現人類在形態學上的特點。如有資料，我們也將提及長臂猿，以完成人猿總科(Hominoidea)的全貌。
A review of the pertinent literature brings to light rather unexpected gaps in our knowledge of primate anatomy. In many instances, a complete comparison is not possible because of lack of data; in other instances, the facts reported are based on dissections of a single specimen so that artifacts of fixation, age, sex, and individual variations are uncontrolled variables. The presentation, however, has been confined to the most outstanding and generally agreed upon facts.
回顧相關的文獻，對靈長類解剖學知識預料外的空白浮現出來。在很多個案上，因為資料缺乏而不可能作出完整的比較；在其它個案中，提出的結果是基於對單一標本的解剖，因此對標本的固定方式、年齡、以及個體變異是非控制變項。然而，以下的介紹限於最顯著且廣為認可的結果。
The anatomical discussions lay no claim to completeness and cannot substitute as a text for instruction on the anatomy of speech organs.(Kaplan, 1960 may be used for the purpose.)
此處解剖學的討論不具完整性，而且不能作為介紹語言器官解剖學的教材(Kaplan, 1960或可作此用途)。
LB021-022T
LB21-22
IV. GENETIC FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR
We have constructed a picture of behavior consisting of a fixed matrix (that is, species-specificities delimited by characteristic anatomical and physiological processes), which an individual can never learn to transcend, coupled with varying degrees of freedom for combining existing, built-in skills and traits. If these skills and traits are, indeed, programmed into the individual as is implied here, then we ought to be able to adduce evidence for inheritance of such traits. Moreover, the history of evolution should give us some clues regarding phylogenetic emergence of behavior. Such evidence and clues do exist.
我們已建造了一幅圖像，當中行為是由一組固定的矩陣來構成的 (亦即物種的特性是由其獨特的解剖學和生理學過程來界定的)，個體從來都不能藉由學習來超越這幅圖象，即便具有多樣的自由度以結合既有的內建技能和特徵。如果這些技能和特徵的確如此處所意指的，係設計至個體當中，那麼我們應該能夠為這類特徵的遺傳來舉證。此外，演化史應能提供我們一些有關行為在種屬發生上的線索。這樣的證據是存在的。
Genetics of behavior were first summarized by Hall (1951) and more recently treated in greater detail by Fuller and Thompson (1960). Genetic influences upon various aspects of behavior have been demonstrated for many species. Several studies were made on the fruitfly. Erlenmeyer-Kimling et al. (1962) bred Drosophila melanogaster selectively to produce strains with vastly different geotactic responses (going against or toward the pull of gravity in an appropriate maze). Selective breeding experiments on rats were reported by Rundquist (1933), varying the amount of spontaneous activities in the strains developed; by Tryon (1940), producing maze-bright and maze-dull strains, and by Hall (1951), varying emotionality (as measured by frequency of urination and defecation). It is true that in these experiments it is often not clear exactly what is transmitted genetically. Searle (1949), for instance, pointed out that the behavioral difference demonstrated by Tryon may be a result of a factor of congenital timidity, the dull rats actually being upset about the experimental arrangement, whereas the bright ones are undaunted by the maze. Searle’s interpretation may very well be correct, but it does not alter the basic fact that genes do make a difference in the execution of behavior (Fuller and Thompson, 1960). In some instances, the breeds resulting from artificial selection of mates may behave differently from each other because of morphological differentiations (James, 1941). In other instances, morphological changes that are usually inevitable in breeding experiments may be irrelevant to the behavioral changes observed. In this case, physiological processes are altered, thus raising or lowering thresholds of responsiveness.
行為的遺傳學由Hall(1951)首度概述，後來Fuller和Thompson(1960)作了更詳盡的探討。遺傳對行為眾多方面的影響可見於許多物種。對於果蠅已有很多研究。Erlenmeyer-Kimling et al. (1962)對 Drosophila melanogaster育種，以產生趨地性反應有很大差異的品種(在一適當的迷宮裡飛向或飛離重力的牽引 )。Rundquist (1933)報告了對老鼠的育種實驗，自發性活動的總額在培養出的不同品種中表現出差異；Tryon (1940)的實驗培養出擅長和不擅走迷宮的品種，Hall(1951)的實驗呈現出有差別的情緒性(以排泄的頻率來衡量)。的確，在這些實驗中，何者係經由遺傳傳遞並不確切。例如，Searle (1949)指出，Tryon呈現出的行為差異可能是天生膽怯的結果，不擅走迷宮的老鼠實際是被實驗的安排嚇到了，而擅長迷宮的老鼠卻不畏懼。Searle的解讀
極有可能是正確的，但那並不改變基本的事實，也就是基因對於行為的實行的確有影響(Fuller and Thompson, 1960)。在一些個案中，人工配對產生的品種可能因為形態的區分而在行為上彼此不同(James, 1941)。在其它個案中，在育種實驗中通常免不了的形態改變，可能和觀察到的行為改變沒有關係。在這種情況下，生理學的過程改變了，因此提高或降低了起反應的閾值。
This was most directly demonstrated by Herter (1936) who showed different thermotactic optima in gray and white mice (where the color of the coat is apparently irrelevant) and by Setterfield et al. (1396), who showed that the inability to taste phenylthiocarbamide is inherited in man as a recessive Mendelian trait. Scott and Charles (1954) make a similar point, extending it generally to the interaction between the genetically given and the environmentally modified. In summarizing their work on dogs, they state: ”…different thresholds of response to minimal…stimulation tend to produce all-or-none responses, and the process of habit formation tends to cause individuals to react one way or the other, producing increasingly clear-cut differences.
此一現象最直接的展示可見於以下研究，Herter(1936)呈現了灰毛和白毛老鼠具有不同的趨溫最適條件(在此，毛色顯然不相關)，以及Setterfield et al. (1396)，他指明了無法嚐出苯基硫代尿素PTC （phenylthiocarbamide）是一項在男性中隱性遺傳的孟德爾式遺傳特徵。Scott and Charles (1954)提出相似的論點，並普遍地延伸到遺傳給定事項和環境調整事項間的互動。在摘要他們對狗的研究時，說明”…對於最小…刺激起反應的不同的閾值，傾向產出全有或全無的反應，而習慣形成的過程，傾向使得個體有這樣或那樣的反應，於是產生了愈來愈多明確的差異。
This point is very well taken. It seems unlikely that genes actually transmit behavior as we observe it in the living animal because the course that an individual takes in its peregrinations through life must necessarily depend on environmental contingencies which could not have been “programmed and prepared for” in advance. Inheritance must confine itself to propensities, to dormant potentialities that await actualization by extra-organic stimuli, but it is possible that innate facilitatory or inhibitory factors are genetically transmitted which heighten the likelihood of one course of events over another. When put into these terms, it becomes quite clear that nature-nurture cannot be a dichotomy of factors but only and interaction of factors. To think of these terms as incompatible opposites only obscures the interesting aspects of the origin of behavior.
此論點備受肯定。我們所觀察到行為在動物中的傳遞，看來似乎不可能真的是藉由基因辦到的，這是因為，一個個體在其一生中經歷的過程必定是取決於環境的或有情況，而這些情況不能事先”計畫或預備”。遺傳必然只於限於傾向、休眠的潛在性，這些都有待生物體外的刺激才能實現，但情況可能是內在的促進或抑制因子係經遺傳來傳遞，而這些因子使得某一事件路徑(course of events)的可能性高於其它。用這些說法來陳述時，天性-教養就顯得很清楚地不可能是因子間的二分法，而是因子間的互動。把這些說法當作不相容的對立項，只會讓我們看不清行為起源有趣的面向。
IV. GENETIC FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR
We have constructed a picture of behavior consisting of a fixed matrix (that is, species-specificities delimited by characteristic anatomical and physiological processes), which an individual can never learn to transcend, coupled with varying degrees of freedom for combining existing, built-in skills and traits. If these skills and traits are, indeed, programmed into the individual as is implied here, then we ought to be able to adduce evidence for inheritance of such traits. Moreover, the history of evolution should give us some clues regarding phylogenetic emergence of behavior. Such evidence and clues do exist.
我們已建造了一幅圖像，當中行為是由一組固定的矩陣來構成的 (亦即物種的特性是由其獨特的解剖學和生理學過程來界定的)，個體從來都不能藉由學習來超越這幅圖象，即便具有多樣的自由度以結合既有的內建技能和特徵。如果這些技能和特徵的確如此處所意指的，係設計至個體當中，那麼我們應該能夠為這類特徵的遺傳來舉證。此外，演化史應能提供我們一些有關行為在種屬發生上的線索。這樣的證據是存在的。
Genetics of behavior were first summarized by Hall (1951) and more recently treated in greater detail by Fuller and Thompson (1960). Genetic influences upon various aspects of behavior have been demonstrated for many species. Several studies were made on the fruitfly. Erlenmeyer-Kimling et al. (1962) bred Drosophila melanogaster selectively to produce strains with vastly different geotactic responses (going against or toward the pull of gravity in an appropriate maze). Selective breeding experiments on rats were reported by Rundquist (1933), varying the amount of spontaneous activities in the strains developed; by Tryon (1940), producing maze-bright and maze-dull strains, and by Hall (1951), varying emotionality (as measured by frequency of urination and defecation). It is true that in these experiments it is often not clear exactly what is transmitted genetically. Searle (1949), for instance, pointed out that the behavioral difference demonstrated by Tryon may be a result of a factor of congenital timidity, the dull rats actually being upset about the experimental arrangement, whereas the bright ones are undaunted by the maze. Searle’s interpretation may very well be correct, but it does not alter the basic fact that genes do make a difference in the execution of behavior (Fuller and Thompson, 1960). In some instances, the breeds resulting from artificial selection of mates may behave differently from each other because of morphological differentiations (James, 1941). In other instances, morphological changes that are usually inevitable in breeding experiments may be irrelevant to the behavioral changes observed. In this case, physiological processes are altered, thus raising or lowering thresholds of responsiveness.
行為的遺傳學由Hall(1951)首度概述，後來Fuller和Thompson(1960)作了更詳盡的探討。遺傳對行為眾多方面的影響可見於許多物種。對於果蠅已有很多研究。Erlenmeyer-Kimling et al. (1962)對 Drosophila melanogaster育種，以產生趨地性反應有很大差異的品種(在一適當的迷宮裡飛向或飛離重力的牽引 )。Rundquist (1933)報告了對老鼠的育種實驗，自發性活動的總額在培養出的不同品種中表現出差異；Tryon (1940)的實驗培養出擅長和不擅走迷宮的品種，Hall(1951)的實驗呈現出有差別的情緒性(以排泄的頻率來衡量)。的確，在這些實驗中，何者係經由遺傳傳遞並不確切。例如，Searle (1949)指出，Tryon呈現出的行為差異可能是天生膽怯的結果，不擅走迷宮的老鼠實際是被實驗的安排嚇到了，而擅長迷宮的老鼠卻不畏懼。Searle的解讀
極有可能是正確的，但那並不改變基本的事實，也就是基因對於行為的實行的確有影響(Fuller and Thompson, 1960)。在一些個案中，人工配對產生的品種可能因為形態的區分而在行為上彼此不同(James, 1941)。在其它個案中，在育種實驗中通常免不了的形態改變，可能和觀察到的行為改變沒有關係。在這種情況下，生理學的過程改變了，因此提高或降低了起反應的閾值。
This was most directly demonstrated by Herter (1936) who showed different thermotactic optima in gray and white mice (where the color of the coat is apparently irrelevant) and by Setterfield et al. (1396), who showed that the inability to taste phenylthiocarbamide is inherited in man as a recessive Mendelian trait. Scott and Charles (1954) make a similar point, extending it generally to the interaction between the genetically given and the environmentally modified. In summarizing their work on dogs, they state: ”…different thresholds of response to minimal…stimulation tend to produce all-or-none responses, and the process of habit formation tends to cause individuals to react one way or the other, producing increasingly clear-cut differences.
此一現象最直接的展示可見於以下研究，Herter(1936)呈現了灰毛和白毛老鼠具有不同的趨溫最適條件(在此，毛色顯然不相關)，以及Setterfield et al. (1396)，他指明了無法嚐出苯基硫代尿素PTC （phenylthiocarbamide）是一項在男性中隱性遺傳的孟德爾式遺傳特徵。Scott and Charles (1954)提出相似的論點，並普遍地延伸到遺傳給定事項和環境調整事項間的互動。在摘要他們對狗的研究時，說明”…對於最小…刺激起反應的不同的閾值，傾向產出全有或全無的反應，而習慣形成的過程，傾向使得個體有這樣或那樣的反應，於是產生了愈來愈多明確的差異。
This point is very well taken. It seems unlikely that genes actually transmit behavior as we observe it in the living animal because the course that an individual takes in its peregrinations through life must necessarily depend on environmental contingencies which could not have been “programmed and prepared for” in advance. Inheritance must confine itself to propensities, to dormant potentialities that await actualization by extra-organic stimuli, but it is possible that innate facilitatory or inhibitory factors are genetically transmitted which heighten the likelihood of one course of events over another. When put into these terms, it becomes quite clear that nature-nurture cannot be a dichotomy of factors but only and interaction of factors. To think of these terms as incompatible opposites only obscures the interesting aspects of the origin of behavior.
此論點備受肯定。我們所觀察到行為在動物中的傳遞，看來似乎不可能真的是藉由基因辦到的，這是因為，一個個體在其一生中經歷的過程必定是取決於環境的或有情況，而這些情況不能事先”計畫或預備”。遺傳必然只於限於傾向、休眠的潛在性，這些都有待生物體外的刺激才能實現，但情況可能是內在的促進或抑制因子係經遺傳來傳遞，而這些因子使得某一事件路徑(course of events)的可能性高於其它。用這些說法來陳述時，天性-教養就顯得很清楚地不可能是因子間的二分法，而是因子間的互動。把這些說法當作不相容的對立項，只會讓我們看不清行為起源有趣的面向。
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